B. In sub-Saharan Africa, division is between the
Middle Stone Age (MSA) and the Later Stone Age
(LSA). : "Middle Stone Age"
1. Period between disappearance of handaxes (end
of Acheulean) and the beginning of the Later
Stone Age (development of microlithic
technology), roughly 200,000-40,000 ya;
"Mitochondrial Eve's" period.
2. Makers may be both archaic H.s. and modern
H.s.s., as well as traditional forms
3. Increasing tendency towards regionalization of
cultures but little evidence of African precocity
(except for bone harpoons at site in E. Zaire
possibly >70,000 ya).
4. LSA difficult to characterize & poorly known
between 40,000-20,000 years ago. Has well-made
bone artifacts, art objects, personal adornments.
After 20,000 years ago, many microliths that
were probably inserted in bone or wooden
handles; used for composite arrows & fishing.
C. In North Africa, (Nile Valley, Med. coast) archaeo-
logical residues of period similar those of western
Asia and Europe; assigned to Middle Paleolithic (fpr
the earlier period) and Upper Paleolithic (later; be-
ginning about 40 kya).
D. Asia & Australia. Contrast between western Asia (a
crossroads) and eastern Asia (on its own trajectory
producing a distinctive human type that was
neither Neanderthal nor modern).
1. In Near East, progressive change towards U.P.
tool technology from 47,000-38,000 in Israel at
Boker Tachtit. Only modern H.s.s. after 37,000
B.P.; earliest H.s.s. (Skhul & Qafzeh caves in
Israel) have a Mousterian technology.
a. early moderns & debatable TL/ESR dates
b. are Skhul/Qafzeh populations all that
modern?
c. archaic humans may have had a radiating
mobility strategy whereas modern humans
may have had a circulating strategy
2. In Siberia & adjacent regions, harsh climatic
conditions precluded occupation until 35,000-
20,000 years ago, when anatomically modern
people with U.P.-like stone tools, formal bone
artifacts, and art objects or ornaments appear.
(However, dates of 300,000 ya were reported in
1997 for Diring Yuriak, based on TL.)
3. Australasia: initial colonization 50 kya (cros-
sing at least 90 km of open sea); earliest physical
type not well documented, but after 30 kya they
are modern (with more remnant erectus genes
than other surviving populations?)
a. Malakunanja II rockshelter in Arnhem Land,
N. Australia, 60 kya;
b. hematite being used as a pigment at site in N.
Australia dated to 53 kya;
c. humans reach S. Australia by 40 kya; earliest
art apparently >40kya
d. Some erectus-like remnants persist till 10kya
(?Kow Swamp: flat sloping forehead, mas-
sive brow ridges, broad cheekbones, and
projecting lower face distinguish this from
modern Aborigines, but post-cranially these
individuals appear modern; cultural frontal
bone compression?)
A. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). mtDNA evolves
5-10x faster than nuclear DNA; not subject to recom-
bination; inherited maternally; genome small in size
(16,569 base pairs in humans); several thousand
copies in each cell. 1987 claim: all modern popula-
tions descended from one woman who lived about
200,000 years ago, probably in Africa. General prob-
lems:
1. geographic restriction of mtDNA due to
male dispersal/female stability;
2. gene trees may not always reflect the species
trees
3. "Molecular clocks" assume that intra-specific
variation is negligible, but human mtDNA %
divergence is 1.3. Therefore, "ancient
variation" (prior to speciation) is possible.
4. Assumption of rate constancy is questionable
(macaques).
5. Statistical problems
6. Paternal genes sneak into the mtDNA in
mice; do they in humans?
B. In 1989, discovered that DNA could be amplified
from ancient bones: opens doors for under-
standing prehistoric human migrations, e.g.,
Polynesian Origins problems
1. Lapita Cultural Complex 3600 bp (ornate
pottery, domesticated animals, agriculture &
navigation), to New Zealand by 12th century
A.D.: from Melanesia rather than SE Asia
2. Easter Island colonized from Polynesia, not
South America
C. More recent developments: Nuclear DNA
1. Y chromosome
2. Other nuclear (Windover brain tissues)
A. Aurignacian: a material culture based on
production of blades and a variety of gener-
ally new lithic tools, esp. burins, end-
scrapers, retouched blades, and bone & ant-
ler tools
B. Sampling of earliest 14C dates for "Aurigna-
cian" Assemblages
1. Spain: Castillo ca. 40,000 bp
2. Belgium: Magrite ca. 41,300 bp
3. Hungary: Istallosko ca. 44,300 bp
4. Bulgaria: Bacho Kiro ca. 43,000 bp